Evaluating the definition and distribution of spring ephemeral wildflowers in eastern North America.

PREMISE: The herbaceous layer accounts for the majority of plant biodiversity in eastern North American forests, encompassing substantial variation in life history strategy and function. One group of early-season herbaceous understory species, colloquially referred to as spring ephemeral wildflowers, are ecologically and culturally important, but little is known about the prevalence and biogeographic patterns of the spring ephemeral strategy. METHODS: We used observations collected by the Global Biodiversity Information Facility (GBIF) to quantify the ephemerality of 559 understory forb species across eastern North America and classify them according to a continuous ephemerality index (ranging from 0 = never ephemeral to 1 = always ephemeral). We then used this information to model where ephemeral forbs were most common across the landscape with the goal of identifying geographic and environmental drivers important to their distributions and ranges. RESULTS: Only 3.4% of all understory wildflower species were spring ephemerals in all parts of their range, and 18.4% (103 species) were ephemeral in at least part of their range. Spring ephemerals peaked in absolute species richness and relative proportion at mid latitudes. CONCLUSIONS: Spring ephemeral phenology is an important shade-avoidance strategy for a large segment of the total understory species in temperate deciduous forests. In North America, the strategy is relatively most important for forest understories at mid latitudes. The definitions of spring ephemerality we provide here serve as an important ecological context for conservation priorities and to evaluate responses of this biodiverse group to future environmental change.

Ozone exposure-response relationships parametrized for sixteen tree species with varying sensitivity in the United States.

It is well known that exposure to ambient O3 can decrease growth in many tree species in the United States (US). Our study reports experimental data from outdoor open-top chamber (OTC) studies that quantify total biomass response changes for seedlings of 16 species native to western and eastern North America, which were exposed to several levels of elevated O3 for one or more years. The primary objective of this study is to establish a reference set of parameters for these seedling exposure-response relationships using a 3-month (92 day) 12-hr W126 O3 metric used by US Environmental Protection Agency and other agencies to assess risk to trees from O3 exposure. We classified the 16 species according to their sensitivity, based on the biomass loss response functions to protect from a 5% biomass loss. The three-month 12-h W126 estimated to result in a 5% biomass loss was 2.5-9.2 ppm-h for sensitive species, 20.8-25.2 ppm-h for intermediate species, and > 28.7 ppm-h for insensitive species. The most sensitive tree species include black cherry, ponderosa pine, quaking aspen, red alder, American sycamore, tulip poplar and winged sumac. These species are ecologically important and widespread across US. The effects of O3 on whole-plant biomass depended on exposure duration and dynamics and on the number of successive years of exposure. These species-specific exposure-response relationships will allow US agencies and other groups to better estimate biomass losses based on ozone exposures in North America and can be used in risk assessment and scenario analyses.

Authentic Research in the Classroom Increases Appreciation for Plants in Undergraduate Biology Students.

Engaging students in authentic research increases student knowledge, develops STEM skills, such as data analysis and scientific communication, and builds community. Creating authentic research opportunities in plant biology might be particularly crucial in addressing plant awareness disparity (PAD) (formerly known as plant blindness), producing graduates with botanical literacy, and preparing students for plant-focused careers. Our consortium created four CUREs (course-based undergraduate research experiences) focused on dual themes of plant biology and global change, designed to be utilized by early and late-career undergraduates across a variety of educational settings. We implemented these CURES for four semesters, in a total of 15 courses, at four institutions. Pre- and post-course assessments used the Affective Elements of Science Learning Questionnaire and parts of a "plant blindness" instrument to quantify changes in scientific self-efficacy, science values, scientific identity, and plant awareness or knowledge. The qualitative assessment also queried self-efficacy, science values, and scientific identity. Data revealed significant and positive shifts in awareness of and interest in plants across institutions. However, quantitative gains in self-efficacy and scientific identity were only found at two of four institutions tested. This project demonstrates that implementing plant CUREs can produce affective and cognitive gains across institutional types and course levels. Focusing on real-world research questions that capture students' imaginations and connect to their sense of place could create plant awareness while anchoring students in scientific identities. While simple interventions can alleviate PAD, implementing multiple CUREs per course, or focusing more on final CURE products, could promote larger and more consistent gains in student affect across institutions.

Host tree species mediate corticolous lichen responses to elevated CO2 and O3 after 10 years exposure in the Aspen-FACE system.

Lichens contribute significantly to the biodiversity and functioning of many ecosystems. Although lichens are useful air pollution bioindicators and may respond in significant ways to global change, they are studied infrequently under field conditions in chamberless exposure systems. We surveyed corticolous lichens on paper birch (Betula papyrifera) and trembling aspen (Populus tremuloides) after 10 years exposure (1998-2007) to elevated CO2 (eCO2) and O3 (eO3) in the Aspen-FACE experiment in Rhinelander, WI, USA. This experiment utilized chamberless exposure rings, 30 m in diameter, with both host trees planted together in one quadrant. Four treatments were allocated among 12 rings: ambient, eCO2, eO3, and the combination of eCO2 + eO3, each replicated once in each of three blocks. Over the course of the experiment, ambient CO2 increased from 343 to 386 ppm while eCO2 averaged ~530 ppm CO2. Ambient ozone concentrations averaged ~37 ppb and ~49 ppb for eO3 although exposures decreased with time. Tree growth and leaf area index were negatively affected by eO3 and stimulated by eCO2, resulting in higher photosynthetically active radiation (PAR) in eO3 and lower in eCO2. We assessed lichen richness and cover on five host trees per ring on the north-facing side of the trunks, which were higher on birch than on aspen. Neither of the lichen measures on birch responded to the exposure treatments, while on aspen lichen cover was highest in eO3 and lowest in eCO2. On aspen, lichen cover was positively related to PAR and dominated by Caloplaca. No relationship was found for birch, although Lecanora exhibited a negative relationship with PAR. These lichens were insensitive to direct effects of eCO2 and eO3 at the levels applied. Instead, they responded to indirect effects, such as host tree species, and changes in understory PAR, resulting from direct effects of eO3 and eCO2 on the host trees.

Oncolytic vesicular stomatitis viruses selectively target M2 macrophages.

Macrophages have been identified as key players within the tumor microenvironment, with classically (M1) and alternatively (M2) activated macrophages exhibiting anti-tumoral and pro-tumoral functions, respectively. The goal of this study was to determine the response of macrophage populations to infection with oncolytic vesicular stomatitis virus (VSV). THP-1 monocytes were differentiated into various macrophage subsets and infected with wild-type (rwt virus) or matrix (M) protein mutant (rM51R-M virus) strains of VSV. Monocytes and M2 macrophages were susceptible to infection and killing by both rwt and rM51R-M viruses. rM51R-M virus also increased expression of the M1 markers p-STAT1, CD80, and TNF-α in pro-tumoral M2 macrophages, suggesting reprogramming towards an M1-like pro-inflammatory state. Meanwhile, rwt virus was more effective than rM51R-M virus at replicating in M2 macrophages and at inhibiting the development of invasive podosome structures. This was all in contrast to anti-tumoral M1 macrophages, which remained resistant to VSV-induced cytopathic effects. These results indicate that macrophage populations are differentially susceptible to VSV and that rwt and rM51R-M viruses may modulate the tumor-promoting phenotype of M2 macrophages by distinct mechanisms.

Tropospheric ozone assessment report: Global ozone metrics for climate change, human health, and crop/ecosystem research.

Assessment of spatial and temporal variation in the impacts of ozone on human health, vegetation, and climate requires appropriate metrics. A key component of the Tropospheric Ozone Assessment Report (TOAR) is the consistent calculation of these metrics at thousands of monitoring sites globally. Investigating temporal trends in these metrics required that the same statistical methods be applied across these ozone monitoring sites. The nonparametric Mann-Kendall test (for significant trends) and the Theil-Sen estimator (for estimating the magnitude of trend) were selected to provide robust methods across all sites. This paper provides the scientific underpinnings necessary to better understand the implications of and rationale for selecting a specific TOAR metric for assessing spatial and temporal variation in ozone for a particular impact. The rationale and underlying research evidence that influence the derivation of specific metrics are given. The form of 25 metrics (4 for model-measurement comparison, 5 for characterization of ozone in the free troposphere, 11 for human health impacts, and 5 for vegetation impacts) are described. Finally, this study categorizes health and vegetation exposure metrics based on the extent to which they are determined only by the highest hourly ozone levels, or by a wider range of values. The magnitude of the metrics is influenced by both the distribution of hourly average ozone concentrations at a site location, and the extent to which a particular metric is determined by relatively low, moderate, and high hourly ozone levels. Hence, for the same ozone time series, changes in the distribution of ozone concentrations can result in different changes in the magnitude and direction of trends for different metrics. Thus, dissimilar conclusions about the effect of changes in the drivers of ozone variability (e.g., precursor emissions) on health and vegetation exposure can result from the selection of different metrics.

Comparative ozone responses of cutleaf coneflowers (Rudbeckia laciniata var. digitata, var. ampla) from Rocky Mountain and Great Smoky Mountains National Parks, USA.

Cutleaf coneflower (Rudbeckia laciniata L. var. digitata) is native to Great Smoky Mountains National Park (GRSM) and an ozone bioindicator species. Variety ampla, whose ozone sensitivity is less well known, is native to Rocky Mountain National Park (ROMO). In the early 2000s, researchers found putative ozone symptoms on var. ampla and rhizomes were sent to Appalachian State University to verify that the symptoms were the result of ozone exposure. In 2011, potted plants were exposed to ambient ozone from May to August. These same plants were grown in open-top chambers (OTCs) in 2012 and 2013, and exposed to charcoal-filtered (CF), non-filtered (NF), elevated ozone (EO), NF+50ppb in 2012 for 47days and NF+30/NF+50ppb ozone in 2013 for 36 and 36days, respectively. Ozone symptoms similar to those found in ROMO (blue-black adaxial stippling) were reproduced both in ambient air and in the OTCs. Both varieties exhibited foliar injury in the OTCs in an exposure-dependent manner, verifying that symptoms resulted from ozone exposure. In two of the three study years, var. digitata appeared more sensitive than var. ampla. Exposure to EO caused reductions in ambient photosynthetic rate (A) and stomatal conductance (gs) for both varieties. Light response curves indicated that ozone reduced A, gs, and the apparent quantum yield while it increased the light compensation point. In CF air, var. ampla had higher light saturated A (18.2±1.04 vs 11.6±0.37µmolm-2s-1), higher light saturation (1833±166.7 vs 1108±141.7µmolm-2s-1), and lower Ci/Ca ratio (0.67±0.01 vs 0.77±0.01) than var. digitata. Coneflowers in both Parks are adversely affected by exposure to ambient ozone and if ozone concentrations increase in the Rocky Mountains, greater amounts of injury on var. ampla can be expected.

Spermine inhibits Vibrio cholerae biofilm formation through the NspS-MbaA polyamine signaling system.

The aquatic bacterium and human intestinal pathogen, Vibrio cholerae, senses and responds to a variety of environment-specific cues to regulate biofilm formation. Specifically, the polyamines norspermidine and spermidine enhance and repress V. cholerae biofilm formation, respectively. These effects are relevant for understanding V. cholerae pathogenicity and are mediated through the periplasmic binding protein NspS and the transmembrane bis-(3'-5') cyclic diguanosine monophosphate (c-di-GMP) phosphodiesterase MbaA. However, the levels of spermidine required to inhibit biofilm formation through this pathway are unlikely to be encountered by V. cholerae in aquatic reservoirs or within the human host during infection. We therefore hypothesized that other polyamines in the gastrointestinal tract may control V. cholerae biofilm formation at physiological levels. The tetramine spermine has been reported to be present at nearly 50 µm concentrations in the intestinal lumen. Here, we report that spermine acts as an exogenous cue that inhibits V. cholerae biofilm formation through the NspS-MbaA signaling system. We found that this effect probably occurs through a direct interaction of spermine with NspS, as purified NspS protein could bind spermine in vitro Spermine also inhibited biofilm formation by altering the transcription of the vps genes involved in biofilm matrix production. Global c-di-GMP levels were unaffected by spermine supplementation, suggesting that biofilm formation may be regulated by variations in local rather than global c-di-GMP pools. Finally, we propose a model illustrating how the NspS-MbaA signaling system may communicate exogenous polyamine content to the cell to control biofilm formation in the aquatic environment and within the human intestine.

Ambient ozone effects on gas exchange and total non-structural carbohydrate levels in cutleaf coneflower (Rudbeckia laciniata L.) growing in Great Smoky Mountains National Park.

Ozone-sensitive and -tolerant individuals of cutleaf coneflower (Rudbeckia laciniata L.) were compared for their gas exchange characteristics and total non-structural carbohydrates at Purchase Knob, a high elevation site in Great Smoky Mountains National Park, USA. Photosynthesis and stomatal conductance decreased with increased foliar stipple. Sensitive plants had lower photosynthetic rates for all leaves, except the very youngest and oldest when compared to tolerant plants. Stomatal conductance decreased with increasing leaf age, but no ozone-sensitivity differences were found. Lower leaves had less starch than upper ones, while leaves on sensitive plants had less than those on tolerant plants. These results show that ambient levels of ozone in Great Smoky Mountains National Park can adversely affect gas exchange, water use efficiency and leaf starch content in sensitive coneflower plants. Persistence of sensitive genotypes in the Park may be due to physiological recovery in low ozone years.

Why some stems are red: cauline anthocyanins shield photosystem II against high light stress.

Red-stemmed plants are extremely common, yet the functions of cauline anthocyanins are largely unknown. The possibility that photoabatement by anthocyanins in the periderm reduces the propensity for photoinhibition in cortical chlorenchyma was tested for Cornus stolonifera. Anthocyanins were induced in green stems exposed to full sunlight. PSII quantum yields (capital EF, Cyrillic(PSII)) and photochemical quenching coefficients were depressed less in red than in green stems, both under a light ramp and after prolonged exposures to saturating white light. These differences were primarily attributable to the attenuation of PAR, especially green/yellow light, by anthocyanins. However, the red internodes also had less chlorophyll and higher carotenoid:chlorophyll ratios than the green, and when the anthocyanic periderm was removed, small differences in the capital EF, Cyrillic(PSII) of the underlying chlorenchyma were retained. Thus, light screening by cauline anthocyanins is important, but is only part of a set of protective acclimations to high irradiance. Hourly measurements of capital EF, Cyrillic(PSII) on established trees under natural daylight indicated a possible advantage of red versus green stems under sub-saturating diffuse, but not direct sunlight. To judge the wider applicability of the hypothesis, responses to high light were compared for red and green stems across five further unrelated species. There was a strong, linear, interspecific correlation between photoprotective advantage and anthocyanin concentration differences among red and green internodes. The photoprotective effect appears to be a widespread phenomenon.

Visible foliar injury caused by ozone alters the relationship between SPAD meter readings and chlorophyll concentrations in cutleaf coneflower.

The ability of the SPAD-502 chlorophyll meter to quantify chlorophyll amounts in ozone-affected leaves of cutleaf coneflower (Rudbeckia laciniata var. digitata) was assessed in this study. When relatively uninjured leaves were measured (percent leaf area affected by stipple less than 6%), SPAD meter readings were linearly related to total chlorophyll with an adjusted R (2) of 0.84. However, when leaves with foliar injury (characterized as a purple to brownish stipple on the upper leaf surface affecting more than 6% of the leaf area) were added, likelihood ratio tests showed that it was no longer possible to use the same equation to obtain chlorophyll estimations for both classes of leaves. Either an equation with a common slope or a common intercept was necessary. We suspect several factors are involved in altering the calibration of the SPAD meter for measuring chlorophyll amounts in visibly ozone-injured leaves, with the most likely being changes in either light absorption or scattering resulting from tissue necrosis.

Seasonal profiles of leaf ascorbic acid content and redox state in ozone-sensitive wildflowers.

Cutleaf coneflower (Rudbeckia laciniata L.), crown-beard (Verbesina occidentalis Walt.), and tall milkweed (Asclepias exaltata L.) are wildflower species native to Great Smoky Mountains National Park (U.S.A.). Natural populations of each species were analyzed for leaf ascorbic acid (AA) and dehydroascorbic acid (DHA) to assess the role of ascorbate in protecting the plants from ozone stress. Tall milkweed contained greater quantities of AA (7-10 micromol g(-1) fresh weight) than crown-beard (2-4 micromol g(-1) fresh weight) or cutleaf coneflower (0.5-2 micromol g(-1) fresh weight). DHA was elevated in crown-beard and cutleaf coneflower relative to tall milkweed suggesting a diminished capacity for converting DHA into AA. Tall milkweed accumulated AA in the leaf apoplast (30-100 nmol g(-1) fresh weight) with individuals expressing ozone foliar injury symptoms late in the season having less apoplast AA. In contrast, AA was not present in the leaf apoplast of either crown-beard or cutleaf coneflower. Unidentified antioxidant compounds were present in the leaf apoplast of all three species. Overall, distinct differences in antioxidant metabolism were found in the wildflower species that corresponded with differences in ozone sensitivity.

Seasonal development of ozone-induced foliar injury on tall milkweed (Asclepias exaltata) in Great Smoky Mountains National Park.

The goals of this study were to document the development of ozone-induced foliar injury, on a leaf-by-leaf basis, and to develop ozone exposure relationships for leaf cohorts and individual tall milkweeds (Asclepias exaltata L.) in Great Smoky Mountains National Park. Plants were classified as either ozone-sensitive or insensitive based on the amount of foliar injury. Sensitive plants developed injury earlier in the season and to a greater extent than insensitive plants. Older leaf cohorts were more likely to belong to high injury classes by the end of each of the two growing seasons. In addition, leaf loss was more likely for older cohorts (2000) and lower leaf positions (2001) than younger cohorts and upper leaves, respectively. Most leaves abscised without prior ozone-like stippling or chlorosis. Failure to take this into account can result in underestimation of the effects of ozone on these plants.

Sub-canopy deposition of ozone in a stand of cutleaf coneflower.

Although there has been a great deal of research on ozone, interest in exposure of native, herbaceous species is relatively recent and it is still not clear what role the pollutant has in their ecological fitness. The ozone exposure of a plant is usually expressed in terms of the concentration above the canopy or as a time-weighted index. However, to understand the physiological effects of ozone it is necessary to quantify the ozone flux to individual leaves as they develop, which requires knowing the deposition velocity and concentration of the pollutant as a function of height throughout the plant canopy. We used a high-order closure model of sub-canopy turbulence to estimate ozone profiles in stands of cutleaf coneflower (Rudbeckia laciniata L.) located in the Great Smoky Mountains National Park, USA. The model was run for periods coinciding with a short field study, during which we measured vertical concentration profiles of ozone along with measurements of atmospheric turbulence and other meteorological and plant variables. Predictions of ozone profiles by the model are compared with observations throughout the canopy.

Conopy architecture of Larrea tridentata (DC.) Cov., a desert shrub: foliage orientation and direct beam radiation interception.

At sites in the United States, creosote bushes (Larrea tridentata (DC.) Cov.) orient foliage clusters predominantly toward the southeast. Foliage of bushes at the southernmost distribution extreme in Mexico shows no predominant orientation. Clusters at all sites are inclined between 33° and 71° from the horizontal. Inclinations are steeper in the drier and hotter Mojave Desert than in the Chihuahuan Desert. Individual leaflets, though not measured, appear more randomly oriented than foliage clusters. In several populations studied, branches were shorter in the southeastern sectors of the crown, reducing self-shading early in the morning. Measurements of direct beam radiation interception by detached branches, using digital image processing, indicated that foliage clusters oriented toward the southeast exhibited less self-shading during spring mornings than clusters oriented northeast. This effect was not apparent at the summer solstice. This type of canopy architecture may tend to minimize self-shading during the morning hours when conditions are more favorable for photosynthesis, resulting in an improved daily water use efficiency.